Brian Belland

Games, especially highly realistic ones, are very expensive to develop. But if they can produce higher learning gains with fewer teacher hours, then their development may well be worth it (Fletcher, 2011). Almost half of the educational games either still in use or just developed by 2005 cost at least $100,000 to produce, and the creation of advanced simulations costs considerably more (Torrente, Moreno-Ger, Fernandez-Manjon, & Sierra, 2008). Systems and strategies to make it easier (and hopefully cheaper) to develop ...

ABSTRACT Student satisfaction is important in the evaluation of distance education courses as it is related to the quality of online programs and student performance. Interaction is a critical indicator of student satisfaction; however, its impact has not been tested in the context of other critical student- and class-level predictors. In this study, we tested a regression model for student satisfaction involving student characteristics (three types of interaction, Internet self-efficacy, and self-regulated learning) and class-level predictors (course category and academic program). Data were collected in a sample of 221 graduate and undergraduate students responding to an online survey. The regression model was tested using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). Learner–instructor interaction and learner–content interaction were significant predictors of student satisfaction but learner–learner interaction was not. Learner–content interaction was the strongest predictor. Academic program category moderated the effect of learner–content interaction on student satisfaction. The effect of learner–content interaction on student satisfaction was stronger in Instructional Technology and Learning Sciences than in psychology, physical education or family, consumer, and human development. In sum, the results suggest that improvements in learner–content interaction yield most promise in enhancing student satisfaction and that learner–learner interaction may be negligible in online course settings.

This study investigates the impact of peer feedback used as an instructional strategy to increase the quality of students' online postings. While peer feedback has been demonstrated to support students' learning in traditional classrooms, little is known about its efficacy in online discussions. To address this gap, we examined students' perceptions of the value of giving and receiving peer feedback, specifically related to the quality of discussion postings in an online course. In addition, we investigated the impact of that ...

Abstract Research has shown that students who perform well in problem-based learning environments tend to have strong self-directed learning skills, which involve the ability to manage time, develop plan, seek resources, and monitor their progress. And although students with low levels of self-direction may not have the strategies needed to perform well initially in this environment, specific pedagogical features of PBL are thought to facilitate the development of these skills. The purpose of this study is to present findings related to the ...

Belland, B., Walker, A., Leary, H., Kuo, Y. & Can, G. (2010, May). A Meta-Analysis of Problem-Based Learning Corrected for Attenuation, and Accounting for Internal Threats. Paper presentation at the American Educational Research Association annual meeting, Denver, CO.

Middle school students have difficulty creating evidence-based arguments (EBAs) during problem-based learning (PBL) units due to challenges (a) adequately representing the unit's central problem (Ge & Land, 2004; Liu & Bera, 2005), (b) determining and obtaining the most relevant evidence (Pedersen & Liu, 2002-2003), and (c) synthesizing gathered information to construct a sound argument (Cho & Jonassen, 2002). I designed and developed the Connection Log to support middle school students in this process. This study addressed (1) the Connection Log's impact on (a) argument evaluation ability, and (b) group argument quality and (2) how and why middle school science students used the Connection Log. Four sections of a 7th-grade science class participated. Student groups selected a stakeholder position related to the Human Genome Project (HGP) and needed to decide on and promote a plan to use $3 million to further their position as pertains to the HGP. I randomly assigned one higher-achieving and one lower-achieving class to Connection Log or no Connection Log conditions. Students completed an argument evaluation test, and impact on argument evaluation ability was determined using nested ANOVA. Two graduate students, blind to treatment conditions, rated group arguments, and impact on group argument quality was determined using nested MANOVA. To determine how and why students used the Connection Log, I videotaped and interviewed one small group from each class in the experimental condition. I coded transcripts and generated themes, triangulating the two data sources with informal observations during all class sessions and what students wrote in the Connection Log. I detected no significant differences on claim, evidence, or connection of claim to evidence ratings of debate performances. However, students used the Connection Log to counter different difficulties, and I found a significant main effect of the Connection Log on argument evaluation ability, as well as a significant simple main effect of the Connection Log on argument evaluation ability of lower-achieving students. Implications include the Connection Log's potential to facilitate the creation of evidence-based arguments and the importance of (a) supporting English as a New Language students' efforts and (b) redundancy in communication.

Abstract This paper employs meta-analysis to determine the impact of scaffold characteristics and study and assessment instrument quality on cognitive student outcomes in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education at the K-12, college, graduate, and adult levels. Studies were coded for necessary information for effect size calculation, contextual information, threats to internal and external validity, and assessment instrument validity and reliability. Results indicate (a) scaffolding positively impacts ...

Problem solving is an important skill in the knowledge economy. Research indicates that the development of problem solving skills works better in the context of instructional approaches centered on real-world problems. But students need scaffolding to be successful in such instruction. In this paper I present a conceptual framework for understanding the effects of scaffolding. First, I discuss the ultimate goal of scaffolding—the transfer of responsibility—and one way that scholars have conceptualized promoting this outcome (fading). Next, I describe an alternative way to conceptualize transfer of responsibility through the lens of distributed cognition and discuss how this lens informs how to promote transfer of responsibility. Then I propose guidelines for the creation of problem solving scaffolds to support transfer of responsibility and discuss them in light of the literature.

Students engaged in problem-based learning (PBL) units solve ill-structured problems in small groups, and then present arguments in support of their solution. However, middle school students often struggle developing evidence-based arguments (Krajcik et al., J Learn Sci 7:313–350, 1998). Using a mixed method design, the researchers examined the use of computer-based argumentation scaffolds, called the Connection Log, to help middle school students build evidence-based arguments. Specifically we investigated (a) the impact of computer-based argumentation scaffolds on middle school students’ construction of evidence-based arguments during a PBL unit, and (b) scaffold use among members of two small groups purposefully chosen for case studies. Data sources included a test of argument evaluation ability, persuasive presentation rating scores, informal observations, videotaped class sessions, and retrospective interviews. Findings included a significant simple main effect on argument evaluation ability among lower-achieving students, and use of the scaffolds by the small groups to communicate and keep organized.

This volume reflects upon how learners engage in the processes of problem solving and critical thinking by exploring the critical theories that undergird these processes; and this chapter introduces practitioners of educational technology to the contents of the book. The discourse of this text relates criticism and PBL to current trends in educational research. In addition to the broader context of the volume, this first chapter quickly summarizes the content of each remaining chapter. This text puts forward criticism as a lens for viewing the ...

Commitment to the Individual refers to the individual learner such as the student or the trainee, etc. This is supported by the scenarios illustrating the Code in these pages over the last two decades. Corresponding items in the ancestral NEA code addressed professional obligations toward students. Of course, there are additional stake holders beyond the immediate recipients of the profession's instructional activities. The text of the Analysis section has been inverted so as to improve the instructional effectiveness of this article. ...

This chapter concludes The role of criticism in understanding problem solving. In it, the overall message of the book—that criticism and critical theories can serve to aid critical reading and synthesis of the educational technology research literature—is summarized. One of the strengths of the educational technology field is its interdisciplinarity. As students enter the field from many different academic disciplines, they should be encouraged to apply not just the content of their former disciplines but also the strategies of and frameworks for ...

Despite evidence that it can help students learn higher-order thinking skills and gain deep content knowledge, problem-based learning (PBL) is not deployed on a large scale in K-12 classrooms. This conceptual chapter explores teacher's past experiences, and resulting habitus, to explain the minimal extent of PBL in K-12 schools. Central to teachers' abilities to implement PBL is their ability to provide scaffolding, and their habitus may interfere with this process. Implications for teacher education and teacher change are discussed.

Abstract The Professional Ethics Committee sponsored a professional development workshop,“Understanding and Applying the Professional Code of Ethics” at the 2007 AECT convention in Anaheim. This interactive workshop helped convention attendees learn how to use AECT's Code of Ethics (2001) by examining situations containing ethical dilemmas. The three sections of the Code were addressed by Committee members Nick Eastmond, Andrew Yeaman, and Rebecca Butler. They presented cases from a variety of contexts, including ...

Introductory biology courses form a cornerstone of undergraduate instruction. However, the predominantly used lecture approach fails to produce higher-order biology learning. Research shows that active learning strategies can increase student learning, yet few biology instructors use all identified active learning strategies. In this paper, we present a framework to design biology instruction that incorporates all active learning strategies. We review active learning research in undergraduate biology courses, present a framework for organizing active learning strategies, and provide clear implications and future research for designing instruction in introductory undergraduate biology courses.

After a year of data collection and analysis, Sandy was pleased to have finished a good draft of a case study on how the presidents of major nonprofit organizations use technology to facilitate leadership. On approaching the office of Carl, one of the three participants, Sandy mused happily that the article's publication would be received as both revealing and helpful. Sandy shared an insightful finding with Carl but was taken aback when he abruptly declared,“That's not true! I never said that.” Sandy had just gone over how one of the ...

Students engaged in problem-based learning (PBL) units solve ill-structured problems in small groups, and then present arguments in support of their solution. However, middle school students often struggle developing evidence-based arguments (Krajcik et al., J Learn Sci 7:313–350, 1998). Using a mixed method design, the researchers examined the use of computer-based argumentation scaffolds, called the Connection Log, to help middle school students build evidence-based arguments. Specifically we investigated (a) the impact of computer-based argumentation scaffolds on middle school students’ construction of evidence-based arguments during a PBL unit, and (b) scaffold use among members of two small groups purposefully chosen for case studies. Data sources included a test of argument evaluation ability, persuasive presentation rating scores, informal observations, videotaped class sessions, and retrospective interviews. Findings included a significant simple main effect on argument evaluation ability among lower-achieving students, and use of the scaffolds by the small groups to communicate and keep organized.

In a landmark report, the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (CCAD)(1989) noted that major changes needed to be made to both the curriculum and culture of middle schools to ensure success of young adolescents as they progressed throughout life and work in the 21st century. Due to middle school students' lack of critical reasoning skills, the Council suggested an increased use of inquiry-based methods in middle schools (CCAD).

Abstract Scaffolds can be defined as tools that help students meaningfully participate in and gain skill at tasks that are beyond their unassisted abilities. However, the term scaffold is often used a theoretically, resulting in poor understanding of how and why students use computer-based scaffolds. In this paper, we reconnect the term scaffold to the socio-cultural theory that undergirds it and use that theory to explain how students use computer-based scaffolds. In particular, we examine the idea that affordances and motives drive student ...

A critical step in problem-based learning (PBL) units occurs when groups present their solution to the central problem. This is challenging for middle school students because it involves the creation of an evidence-based argument (Krajcik et al., Journal of the Learning Sciences 7:313–350, 1998). Using a mixed method design, this study investigated (a) the impact of computer-based argumentation scaffolds on middle school students’ argumentation ability, and (b) what middle school students used for support and why during a PBL unit. Data sources included persuasive presentation rating scores, argument evaluation ability test, videotaped class sessions, and prompted interviews. Results included a significant impact on average-achieving students’ argument evaluation ability, and use of the scaffolds by the small groups to plan their research and keep organized.

The integration of technology by K-12 teachers was promoted to aid the shift to a more student-centered classroom (e.g., Roblyer, M. D., & Edwards, J. (2000). Integrating educational technology into teaching (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill). However, growth in the power of and access to technology in schools has not been accompanied by an equal growth in technology integration. Research into reasons for minimal technology integration has traditionally focused on post-teacher-education barriers to technology integration (e.g., Ertmer, P. A. (2005). Teacher pedagogical beliefs: The final frontier in our quest for technology integration? Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(4), 25–39; Ertmer, P. A., Gopalakrishnan, S., & Ross, E. M. (2001). Technology-using teachers: Comparing perceptions of exemplary use to best practice [Electronic copy]. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33(3) 1–2; Hew, K. F., & Brush, T. (2007). Integrating technology into K-12 teaching and learning: Current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 55(3), 223–252). In this paper, I first clarify the definition of technology integration and question the contention that barriers, particularly those related to teacher beliefs, are behind the lack of technology integration. Using the sociological concept of habitus, or set of dispositions, I then explore preservice teachers’ past experiences as a possible explanation for minimal technology integration and discuss implications for future research and teacher education.

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional approach in which students in small groups engage in an authentic, ill-structured problem, and must (1) define, generate and pursue learning issues to understand the problem, (2) develop a possible solution, (3) provide evidence to support their solution, and (4) present their solution and the evidence that supports it (Barrows, How to design a problem-based curriculum for the preclinical years. Springer Publishing, New York, 1985). However, research has shown that novice problem-solvers and learners without deep content knowledge have difficulty developing strong evidence-based arguments (Krajcik et al., J Learn Sci 7:313–350, 1998a; Reiser, J Lear Sci 13(3):273–304, 2004). In this paper, we discuss the components of (e.g., claims and evidence) and processes of making (e.g., define problem and make claim) evidence-based arguments. Furthermore, we review various scaffolding models designed to help students perform various tasks associated with creating evidence-based arguments (e.g., link claims to evidence) and present guidelines for the development of computer-based scaffolds to help middle school students build evidence-based arguments.

This study investigates the impact of peer feedback used as an instructional strategy to increase the quality of students’ online postings. While peer feedback has been demonstrated to support students’ learning in traditional classrooms, little is known about its efficacy in online discussions. To address this gap, we examined students’ perceptions of the value of giving and receiving peer feedback, specifically related to the quality of discussion postings in an online course. In addition, we investigated the impact of that feedback by comparing the quality of students’ postings, based on Bloom’s taxonomy, from pre-course to post-course. Results suggest that the quality of students’ postings was maintained through the use of peer feedback despite students’ preferences for instructor feedback. Students noted that peer feedback can be valuable and, more importantly, described how giving peer feedback not only reinforced their learning but enabled them to achieve higher understanding.